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Earth-Sci Rev — Food Chem Toxicol — Annals of botany 5 — Reality and perspectives. Photosynthesis Res 1 — Microbial Ecol 71 1 — Mar Drugs 9 9 — Front Microbiol 7 Plant Sci 3 — Colloids Surf B: Biointerfaces — Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp Marine Microbiol— Biotech 7 2 BTA97 and Anabaena sp. BTA in Culture Conditions. Rough calculations, based on the surface area of the oceans and the abundance and distribution of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus , suggest that these are the two most abundant organisms on Planet Earth.
Discoveries about cyanobacteria continue. We recently isolated Crocosphaera , a new genus of dinitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, from the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Scientists have also found Richelia , cyanobacteria with specialized cells for fixing dinitrogen that live inside single-celled marine plants, including some diatoms. Such symbiotic relationships between phytoplankton and dinitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, once they can be successfully cultured, may be shown to play a significant role in the carbon and nitrogen cycles of the oceans.
Many biological compounds, including photosynthetic pigments such as the chlorophylls and phycobiliproteins, fluoresce naturally when excited with light. This natural fluorescence played a key role in the discovery of the marine photosynthetic picoplankton. In , we were using epifluorescence light microscopy to count bacteria in seawater aided by fluorescent dyes that stained bacterial nucleic acids.
Synechococcus was discovered when quite by chance we examined unstained samples and were immediately struck by the numerous small cells that fluoresced bright orange photo at right, by John Waterbury.
The brilliant orange color results from the natural fluorescence of phycoerythrin, one of the phycobiliproteins abundant in cyanobacteria.
It exploits fluorescence to study individual cells. With it, he and Sallie Chisholm of MIT detected very small cells with natural fluorescence of their chlorophylls. He uses techniques that span isotope geochemistry, next generation DNA sequencing, and satellite tagging to study the ecology of a wide variety of ocean species.
He recently discovered that blue sharks use warm water ocean tunnels, or eddies, to dive to the ocean twilight zone, where they forage in nutrient-rich waters hundreds of meters down. Born in New Zealand, Simon received his B. With much of his work in the South Pacific and Caribbean, Simon has been on many cruises, logging 1, hours of scuba diving and hours in tropical environs.
He has been a scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution since Gregory Skomal is an accomplished marine biologist, underwater explorer, photographer, and author. He has been a fisheries scientist with the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries since and currently heads up the Massachusetts Shark Research Program. For more than 30 years, Greg has been actively involved in the study of life history, ecology, and physiology of sharks.
His shark research has spanned the globe from the frigid waters of the Arctic Circle to coral reefs in the tropical Central Pacific. Much of his current research centers on the use of acoustic telemetry and satellite-based tagging technology to study the ecology and behavior of sharks. He has written dozens of scientific research papers and has appeared in a number of film and television documentaries, including programs for National Geographic, Discovery Channel, BBC, and numerous television networks.
His most recent book, The Shark Handbook, is a must buy for all shark enthusiasts. Robert D. He served in the U. Navy for more than 30 years and continues to work with the Office of Naval Research. A pioneer in the development of deep-sea submersibles and remotely operated vehicle systems, he has taken part in more than deep-sea expeditions. In , he discovered the RMS Titanic , and has succeeded in tracking down numerous other significant shipwrecks, including the German battleship Bismarck , the lost fleet of Guadalcanal, the U.
He is known for his research on the ecology and evolution of fauna in deep-ocean hydrothermal, seamount, canyon and deep trench systems. He has conducted more than 60 scientific expeditions in the Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Structural Characteristics of Blue-Green Algae. The Morphology of Algae. What Are the Two Prokaryotic Kingdoms? Role of Photosynthesis in Nature. Is Algae a Decomposer, a Scavenger or a Producer?
Describe What a Photosystem Does for Photosynthesis. Role of Algae in the Ecosystem. How Does Photosynthesis Work in Plants? Percentage of Nitrogen in the Air. The cyanobacterial biomass quality and quantity can be manipulated with the help of several physico-chemical treatments to achieve the desired cyanobacterial biomass having good quality bio-fuel products.
Bio-fuel production using cyanobacteria farming offers various advantages over other bio-agents may be:. It seems that genetically engineered cyanobacteria can be potentially used for the production of a number of bio-fuels [acetone, butanol, ethanol, alka e nes, etc.
However, different biotechnological, environmental and economic challenges have to be overcome before energy products from recombinant cyanobacteria Apt and Behrens, Further, both the production technology and downstream processing of the end products can effectively be improved to obtain super quality bio-fuels from cyanobacteria.
Carbon dioxide is one of the purported GHGs, primarily responsible for global warming and needs to be mitigated. The strategies to reduce CO 2 emissions include energy savings, development of renewable bio-fuels, and CCS.
CCS, a viable tool needs to be explored to enhance the efficiency of such a strategy Rau et al. The CO 2 sequestration by cyanobacteria is receiving increased awareness in alleviating the influence of rising CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere Kumar et al. Being photosynthetic, cyanobacteria contribute to a large share of the total photosynthetic conversion of solar energy and assimilation of CO 2.
The CO 2 fixation rate in cyanobacteria is about 10—50 times faster than the terrestrial plants. Thus the use of these biological agents is considered one of the effective approaches to reduce the concentration of atmospheric CO 2 and thereby, to help in mitigation of possible global warming Chisti, The captured CO 2 in the cyanobacterial biomass can be stored in the form of organic molecules, which can then be used in various ways.
In paddy field soils, the cyanobacteria contribute significantly to both organic and nitrogenous contents Singh, It is anticipated that half of global photosynthesis is contributed by phytoplankton, which mostly includes cyanobacterial members Fuhrman, Many cyanobacteria are halophilic and, therefore, they can be cultured in marine waters, saline drainage water, or brines from petroleum refining industry or CO 2 injection sites, thereby sparing freshwater supplies Jansson and Northen, Combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gas, etc.
Biomass production and CO 2 uptake in cyanobacteria exposed to higher CO 2 levels from flue gas or other streams have been followed for a variety of cyanobacterial species such as Aphanothece microscopica Jacob-Lopes et al. Several thermophilic cyanobacterial members Synechococcus aquatilis , Chlorogloeopsis sp.
Though the major problem associated with the cyanobacterial or biological use of CO 2 is the high temperatures of flue gas and the presence of NOx, SOx as well as other impurities of the fossil fuel used Kumar et al. However, the employment of thermophilic and elevated CO 2 tolerant cyanobacterial species in large water reservoir experiments can solve the problem of NOx, SOx, etc.
In the over all, the large body operations regarding CO 2 sequestration from flue gas owing to the application of thermophilic cyanobacteria may be economically feasible as:. There are additional factors like the availability of light, pH, O 2 removal, suitable design of the experimental systems, culture density, and the proper agitation of the systems that will affect significantly CO 2 sequestration.
Cyanobacterial CO 2 fixation in photobioreactors has recently gained renewed interest in being the promising strategy for CO 2 mitigation. A number of studies have been conducted during the past few decades Hanagata et al.
The use of photobioreactors provides principal advantages over open-pond system, i. Also, genetically engineered cyanobacterial strains, if appropriate, could be used without disturbing the natural environment. Calcium is abundant in many terrestrial, marine and lacustrine ecosystems. By using halophilic cyanobacteria, seawater or brines, for example agricultural drainage water, or saline water produced from petroleum production or geological CO 2 injections, can serve as the potential calcium sources for the calcification process.
Calcification can further be boosted by supplying calcium from gypsum Mazzone et al. However, identification and characterization of cyanobacterial species that would show significant CO 2 assimilation rates at elevated temperature and CO 2 concentrations is still required. We have to investigate calcification at higher CO 2 concentrations, such as in flue gas, and identify how photosynthetic machinery and light harvesting systems can be automated in cyanobacteria cultivated in open pond environment or in photobioreactors.
A better understanding of the biochemical and genetic mechanisms that carry out and regulate cyanobacteria-mediated CO 2 sequestration should put us in a position to further optimize these steps by application of advanced technique of genetic engineering. Anthropogenic activity accounts for the majority of global CH 4 increase, with natural emissions accounting for the rest. Anthropogenic mediated CH 4 emissions are due fossil fuel use, livestock farming, land filling and biomass burning.
Natural sources of CH 4 are estuaries, rivers, lakes, permafrost, gas hydrates, wetlands, oceans, wildfires, vegetation, termites, and wild animals. Flooded paddy fields are also one of the major contributors to atmospheric CH 4 increase due to methanogenesis in anaerobic flooded paddy soils. It is assumed that with the increased human population and food requirements, greater waste generation, and greater use of fossil fuels, its concentration in the atmosphere will in all likelihood increase further.
Therefore, a suitable eco-friendly and viable tool will require mitigating the problem of CH 4. Cyanobacteria could be a big prospect to overcome the global warming problem caused by the GHGs generated from anthropogenic activities Cuellar-Bermudez et al. Cyanobacteria may possibly minimize the emissions of CH 4 from flooded rice soils at the levels of production, transport, and consumption.
Bio-agents like methanotrophs Tiwari et al. Information on interaction between cyanobacteria and methanotrophs with reference to methane flux regulation in paddy fields is completely lacking to date Kaushik and Venkataraman, It is assumed that cyanobacteria may enhance the oxygen concentration in rhizosphere of paddy and consequently may enhance the methane uptake activity of methanotrophs.
In addition, these biological agents can minimize the global warming potential from flooded paddy apart from their ability to fix the atmospheric N 2 in the paddy soils. The O 2 , released during photosynthesis by cyanobacteria into the flooded soils, can liberate into the soil and create an aerobic environment, not friendly for CH 4 genesis Prasanna et al.
At the same time, the O 2 released by cyanobacteria, can augment CH 4 oxidation by enhancing the population and activity of aerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria methanotrophs in flooded paddy soils. The combined application of organic amendment such as FYM and cyanobacteria can not only give the higher paddy yield, but may also contribute to production of lesser CH 4 during paddy cultivation than the application of FYM alone Singh et al.
Application of cyanobacteria reduces methane flux without affecting rice yields, and can be used as the practical mitigation option for minimizing the global warming potential of flooded paddy ecosystems and enhancement by N 2 fixation Prasanna et al. It appears that increasing the diversity of microbes Singh, a including cyanobacteria and methanotrophs in paddy fields can be an innovative strategy to enhance crop productivity and reduce the CH 4 emissions from the agriculture fields in the long-term Singh and Singh, ; Singh, It is suggested that the application of cyanobacteria and their contributions as the N fertilizer replacement would be cost-effective, eco-friendly, and the safer means for degraded land restoration Pandey et al.
Benefits of cyanobacterial bio-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture and mitigating the problems of CH 4 emissions from agriculture fields. Cyanobacteria as food supplements for humans are available in the market in different forms such as tablets, capsules, and liquid Radmer, They are considered to enhance the nutritive value of pastas, snack foods, candy bars or gums, and beverages Liang et al. They can act as the nutritional supplement or represent a source of natural food colorants Nelis and DeLeenheer, ; Borowitzka, ; Muller-Feuga, ; Branen et al.
The most commercial cyanobacterial strain Table 8 used for human nutrition is Spirulina Arthrospira , because of its high protein content and excellent nutritive value Desmorieux and Decaen, ; Soletto et al. In many countries including Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Philippines; some cyanobacterial members such as Spirulina, Anabaena , and Nostoc are consumed as human food. Arthrospira platensis Spirulina platensis is grown on large scale using either raceway ponds or sophisticated photobioreactors and marketed as powder, flakes, tablets or capsules.
It is used as a food supplement because of its richness in nutrients and digestibility Brown et al. Kulshreshtha et al. TABLE 8.
Some commercial companies involved in production of cyanobacteria as food source Courtesy of Gantar and Svircev, ; Priyadarshani and Rath, It is imperative for the healthy agro-ecosystem to gain sustainability in the true sense in order that it conserves the nature and natural resources, and also maintains the complexity and diversity of the ecosystems. It supports and sustains sufficient food production for the increasing world population, ensures economic viability, and safer living for both humans as well as other livestock.
Above all, it addresses the present day environmental concerns. For poor farmers especially in developing countries , it is not quite easy to afford the costly chemical fertilizers and pesticides and also feel concerned for the environmental issues.
Cyanobacteria in this context can be very effective for enriching soil organic carbon and nitrogen and enhancing phosphorus bioavailability to the plants. Cyanobacteria are excellent accumulators or degraders of various environmental contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and oil containing compounds.
Such ubiquitous bio-agents can also be used for capturing and storage of CO 2 that may also lead to climate change mitigations through photosynthesis and biological calcification.
They are also the ideal source of variety of bioactive compounds with marked antagonistic properties. There is enormous scope for the development of bio-agents including cyanobacteria for sustainable agriculture which also takes care of the improvement in the nutrient status of soil and biological control of pest and diseases that may ultimately lead to reductions in the agricultural costs Singh, b ; Singh and Singh, b.
However, it is necessary to carry out further investigations for exploitation of cyanobacteria with the futuristic goal to achieve the target of sustainable agriculture and environment. In view of the declining soil health and productivity due to increased human activities, the maintenance of environmental sustainability is the challenging task ahead. The cyanobacteria are multi-functional bio-agents for safe and eco-friendly agriculture and environmental sustainability, along with several other uses.
To improve their utility in agriculture and associated sectors needs serious attention. Thus there is an urgent need to address certain key issues of exploiting cyanobacteria, the better way. Further, the application of molecular biology has improved our understanding of the effectiveness for betterment of healthy and sustainable agro-ecosystems. Since the use of cyanobacteria to produce valuable chemicals including food supplements is still little explored, there seems a long way to go.
In addition to product developments, future research must address the strain improvement of useful cyanobacteria to achieve high quality food and fuel products, maintain high growth rates and survival under harsh environmental conditions. These will be the key factors to leap from laboratory studies to large-scale and profitable bio-fuel production for sustainable agriculture, ecosystem and environmental development.
The utility of cyanobacteria in sustainable agriculture and environment can be enhanced by genetic manipulations Golden et al. However, the application of genetic engineering to improve bio-fuel production in cyanobacteria is still in its infancy. In future, genetic and metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria are likely to play important roles in improving the economics of cyanobacteria-mediated bio-fuel production.
Cyanobacteria can be genetically modified to potentially increase their growth and photosynthetic efficiency, biomass yield, lipid and carbohydrate productivity, improve temperature tolerance, and reduce photo-inhibition and photo-oxidation Volkmann and Gorbushina, ; Volkmann et al.
However, from lab to field condition shift will not be as easy as it has to addressed several issues such as social relevance, political lobbying and fulfillments with the regulatory norms. Besides these, problems related to cross-contamination through use of closed-photo-bioreactors as a substitute of open ponds, it is recommended to be thoroughly examined prior to execution.
JSS contributed about the role of cyanobacteria in mitigation of GHGs and overall sustainable development. AK described the role of cyanobacteria in biogas and bio-fuel production.
ANR suggested about contribution of cyanobacteria in agriculture production and degraded land restoration. DPS contributed about soil nitrogen fixation and an enrichment mediated by cyanobacteria. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. We also wish to thank Professor S. Singh, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University for his valuable suggestions and language improvement.
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